Page 75 - Emotions through the eyes of our closest living relatives- Exploring attentional and behavioral mechanisms
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                                Attention towards humans’ and bonobos’ emotion
11.03) = 111.39, p < .001). Ordering the categories from high to low based on the arousal ratings led to the following order: Play (most arousing out of all categories), Distress, Yawn, Groom, Neutral, Self-scratch (rated as least arousing of all). Apart from the category Self-scratch (p = .110), all emotion categories differed significantly from neutral (ps < .001). A gender difference showed that women gave higher intensity ratings than men (F(5, 11.03) = 29.11, p < .001).
An interaction between Emotion Category and Species (F(5, 11.03) = 31.39, p <
.001) showed that human observers judged specific emotion categories differently 3 when the scenes depicted bonobos compared to humans. Most strikingly, while
yawning was considered the least arousing emotion category of the human scenes,
it was the most arousing one of the bonobo scenes. For the rest of the expressions,
the overall pattern was similar although the bonobo scenes received higher arousal
ratings than human scenes for the categories Yawning (t(11.03) = 8.71, p < .001) and
Distress (t(11.03) = 4.03, p < .001), but lower arousal ratings than human scenes for
the category Neutral (t(11.03) = 6.84, p < .001 [with a similar trend for self-scratching
(p = .05)]).
Further, an interaction between Species and Age Group (F(1, 11.03) = 110.02, p < .001) showed that while children rated bonobo scenes as more intense than human scenes (t(11.03) = 6.14, p < .001), the opposite was true for adults, who rated human scenes as more intense (t(11.03) = 10.90, p < .001). On similar lines, children rated bonobo scenes as more intense compared to adults (t(11.03) = 14.72, p < .001) while the opposite was true regarding the human scenes (t(11.03) = 4.59, p < .001).
An interaction between Age Group and Emotion Category (F(5, 11.03) = 12.45, p < .001) showed that compared to adults, children gave higher intensity ratings to scenes depicting play (t(11.03) = 4.00, p < .001) or neutral actions (t(11.03) = 9.37, p < .001), but lower arousal ratings to distress scenes (t(11.03) = 2.61, p = .009).
The two-way interactions were further qualified by two three-way interactions. First, there was an interaction between Age Group, Species and Emotion Category (F(5, 11.03) = 21.87, p < .001). Follow-up tests revealed that compared to adults, children gave higher ratings following most bonobo scenes (all categories ps < .001, except self-scratching; p = .18, although numerically in the same direction). Zooming in on the human scenes showed that compared to adults, children perceived the distress scenes as less intense (t(11.03) = 8.89, p < .001) and the neutral scenes as more intense (t(11.03) = 4.74, p < .001). Further, while adults perceived all but the yawn scenes as more intense when showing humans compared to bonobos (ps < .001, but with an opposite effect for yawning [p < .001]), children perceived play
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