Page 73 - Crossing Cultural Boundaries - Cees den Teuling

theories should be build up. In addition, there are claims that entrepreneurship research suffers from fragmentation (Ucbasaran, Westhead & Wright, 2001) and theoretical empiricism (Davidson, Low & Wright, 2001). As argued by Gartner (1990) there is still a lack of an agreement upon a definition of entrepreneurship. Based on Gartner’s study, eight attributes of entrepreneurship are found and accepted: innovation, organisation creation, creating value, profit or non-profit, growth, uniqueness, and the owner- manager. The description can be refined by examining six critical dimensions of business practice: strategic orientation, commitment to opportunity, commitment of resources, control of resources, management structure and reward philosophy.
As argued by Murad (2014), leadership styles are divided in four sub-catagories, distinguished as Transactional leadership (TAL), Transformational leadership (TRF), a combination of the two (TAL+TRF) and finally, Laissez-Faire leadership. “Transformational Leadership style with a high focus on pro-activeness and innovativeness contributes to higher overall business performance and sustainable value creation” (Murad, 2014, p. 1). Transformational style of leadership with a high focus on pro-activeness and innovativeness promote the higher overall business performance and sustainable value creation. A recipient organisation, guided by Transactional leadership, with included concepts like responsibility, respect and trust, creativity, flexibility, coaching enabling, encouraging and innovation is accepted as the favourite condition for (trans-boundary) managerial and business KT.
Research on NC and entrepreneurship shows that until now there has been limited attention, to the cultural variables affecting the level of entrepreneurship in a country (Noorderhaven, Thurik, Wennekers & Van Stel, 2004), such as placing immaterial life orientation, e.g. personal development, self-esteem and independency above material and job security. The same is noted for uncertainty avoidance, connected with a society in which, to an extent, members of a culture feel insecure by unknown, uncertain or unclear situations. Need for achievement is also negatively correlated with uncertainty avoidance (Wennekers, Noorderhaven, Hofstede & Thurik, 2001).
Entrepreneurial roles and the styles of their execution, as well as values and motivations are closely interconnected (Fayolle, Linan & Moriano, 2014). Majority of people with a positive attitude towards entrepreneurship are motivated by more general and not personal values. Studies concerning the connection between culture and entrepreneurship illustrate that the norms, values and beliefs are instrumental for the orientation towards an entrepreneurship. Based on diversity in ethnic groups and groups with another culture, entrepreneurs often have different approaches to motivations and
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