Page 147 - Second language development of newly arrived migrant kindergarteners - Frederike Groothoff

147 Pedagogical practices: focus on focal pupils’ experiences recordings is used (Yeager Petalli, Piasta, Justice, & O’Connell, 2014; McDonald Connor et al., 2009). All in all, snapshot methods are used to assess more objectively and concretely, at a low-inference level, what happens in the classroom, from the point of view of several selected focus children. A snapshot method requires representative sampling and preferably a large number of observation intervals for reliability of the measures. Snapshot measures are usually reported as proportions of intervals in which particular events occurred; the more fine-grained the intervals are, the more accurately the method estimates how time is actually spent in the classroom by the specific focal pupil. 7.2.1 Previous studies using snapshot Many studies make use of the Emergent Snapshot procedure (Ritchie, Howes, Kraft-Sayre, & Weiser, 2001; Early et al., 2010), taking notes every 10 to 20 seconds, but these are difficult to compare according to Peisner-Feinberg et al. (2014) since each study uses different aspects or versions of that procedure. For example, Zuniga and Howes (2009) used the snapshot procedure to measure provider scaffolding of children’s learning in a family child care setting, the responsive involvement, and children’s engagement in pre- academic activities. Howes, Shivers, and Ritchie (2004) used a snapshot measure to measure classroom emotional climate, teacher responsive involvement, and social competence with peers. Another example is Chang et al. (2007) who focused with their snapshot procedure on the teacher-pupil interactions, with codes on a continuum varying from simple routine teacher-pupil interactions, to elaborate teacher-pupil interactions. Thus, even though studies use a snapshot method, it is more the technical procedure that is comparable instead of the outcomes. This is in contrast with the instrument used in Chapter 6. The CLASS is an instrument that when it is used the outcomes in different studies can be compared since the CLASS always measures process quality and not something else. 7.2.2 Dutch studies using snapshot Two studies carried out in the Netherlands using the snapshot procedure are quite similar to the present study. Henrichs and Leseman (2016) also investigated the activities and interactions in Dutch kindergartens (N = 185 participating pupils, of which 94 kindergarteners). The activities occurring most frequently during the observed, fine- grained, 10-second intervals in their study were transition (changing activities, waiting, cleaning, wandering around), conversations, language activities, mathematical activities, and play – all together about two-third of the day’s activities. They further analyzed some of the activities. One activity is coded “conversation,” meaning talking with each other about more than merely the activity. Only 10% of the time these conversations were among pupils themselves. When a teacher had a conversation with the pupil it was mainly didactic: a sequence of short initiative response sequences. The language and mathematical activities